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.Seeingher tentative view confirmed by three others, each member is likely to feelvindicated, to hold her view more confidently, and to move in a more ex-treme direction.At the same time, the very same internal movements arealso occurring in other people (from corroboration to more confidence, andfrom more confidence to more extremism).But those movements will notbe highly visible to each participant.It will simply appear as if others  re-ally hold their views without hesitation.As a result, our little group mightconclude, after a day s discussion, that the intentions of the United States,with respect to foreign aid, cannot be trusted at all.We have a clue here about the immense importance of social networks,on the Internet and in ordinary life, in transmitting rumors and in creatingmovements of various sorts.Social networks can operate as polarizationmachines, because they help to confirm and thus amplify people s anteced-ent views.26 Consider the fact that in one army camp,  the rumor that allBelieving False Rumors 101men over thirty-five years of age were to be discharged traveled likelightning but almost exclusively among men over that age. 27 A far moreserious example is provided by Islamic terrorism, which is fueled by spon-taneous social networks, in which like-minded people spread informationand discuss grievances, with potentially violent results.28 At certain stages, the interactivity among a  bunch of guys acted as an echo chamber, whichprogressively radicalized them collectively to the point where they wereready to collectively join a terrorist organization.Now the same process istaking place online. 29 The major force here is not websites, which peopleread passively; it consists of listserves, blogs, and discussion forums,  whichare crucial in the process of radicalization. 30 Of course many factors con-tribute to terrorist behavior, but there is little doubt that social networks,spreading false rumors, play a significant role.These are examples from the political domain, where rumors run ram-pant; but there are many other illustrations.Why are some foods enjoyed,or rumored to be especially healthy, in some places, whereas the same foodsare disliked, or rumored to be unhealthy, in other places?  Many Germansbelieve that drinking water after eating cherries is deadly; they also believethat putting ice in soft drinks is unhealthy.The English, however, ratherenjoy a cold drink of water after some cherries; and Americans love icyrefreshments. 31 A less innocuous example: In some nations, strong ma-jorities believe that Arab terrorists were not responsible for the attacks ofSeptember 11, 2001.According the Pew Research Institute, 93 percent ofAmericans believe that Arab terrorists destroyed the World Trade Center,whereas only 11 percent of Kuwaitis believe that Arab terrorists destroyedthe World Trade Center.32 With respect to daily life, a great deal of what webelieve, like, and dislike is influenced by the processes of information ex-change that I am exploring here.People s concern for their reputations can increase extremism.A third explana-tion involves social comparison.That explanation begins with the claimthat people want to be perceived favorably by other group members, andalso to perceive themselves favorably.Sometimes our views are, to agreater or lesser extent, a function of how we want to present ourselves.Of course some people are more concerned with others than with their self-presentation.But once we hear what others believe, some of us will adjustour positions at least slightly in the direction of the dominant position, tohold onto our preserved self-presentation.We might contain our opposition;102 Reputationwe might voice somewhat more enthusiasm for the majority view than wereally feel.Some people might want to show, for example, that they are not cowardlyor cautious, especially in an entrepreneurial group that disparages thesecharacteristics and that favors boldness and risk taking.In business, peopleoften want to seem to be risk takers.In such a group, people will frame theirposition so that they do not appear cowardly or cautious by comparison toother group members.And when they hear what other people think, theymight find that they occupy a somewhat different position, in relation tothe group, from what they hoped.They will shift accordingly.33 This mightbe because they want others to see them in a certain way.Or it might bebecause they want to see themselves a certain way, and a shift is necessaryso that they can see themselves in the most attractive light.The phenome-non occurs in many contexts, including acceptance and transmission ofrumors.The Chilling Effect RevisitedIn discussions of possible restrictions on free speech, it is standard to speakof, and to deplore, the  chilling effect that is created by the prospect ofcivil or criminal sanctions [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]